Introduction Statement
This module consists of a brief
introduction of language shift and its definitions. Since there are two or more
languages in contact (Sofu, 2009), language shift takes place and it is
inevitable (Hurtado & Vega, 2004). According to the literature,
language shift is a phenomenon that happens over the course of several
generations (Schmidt, 1990) and might be the consequence of unsuccessful
inter-generational transmission of the heritage language and other cultural
knowledge (Sulask, 2009). However, scholars have stated that even if a language
shift has occurred across generations, individuals of the third or further
generations might desire to recover their cultural and linguistic roots by
reviving the language of their ethnic origins (Baker, 2006).
Historically, the United States
has been a country where an uncountable number of immigrants arrive every day
(Guardado, 2006). A notable phenomenon which has occurred among all the waves
of immigrants that have come to this nation is the intergenerational language
shift (Ishizawa, 2004) as a gauge for assimilation of the dominant culture
(Hurtado & Vega, 2004). However, the linguistic and cultural heritages of
those who are affected by the language shift seem to be dismissed.
Additionally, some scholars have discussed that the United States is a
widespread cemetery of foreign languages (Lieberson, Dalto,& Johnston,
1975; Portes & Hao, 1998). Language shift can be seen as the first step
towards language death (Nawanz, Umer, Anjum, & Ramzan, 2012).
Definition of Language Shift
What is the definition of language shift? Language shift has been defined as
“the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of
communication and socialization within a community” (Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert,
& Leap, 2001, p. 253). Also, it has been referred to as “the change
from habitual use of one’s minority language to that of a more dominant
language under pressures of assimilation from the dominant group” (Fishman,
1966, as cited in Donghui, 2010, p. 43). In other words, language shift
takes place when speakers of minority language give up their mother tongue in
favor of the dominant language of the society where they reside (Sofu, 2009).
According
to Fishman, language shift presents a structure of a three-generation process
which suggests that the immigrant generation learns as much English as is
possible. They keep their native language at home. Then the second generation
learns and uses English at school and workplace and may speak native language
at home. By the third generation, English shifts to become the home language
and knowledge of the heritage language disappears (as cited in Portes &
Hao, 1998). See the video clip for a visual image of the three-generation
process of language shift.
Language Shift in the United States
In the United States, it is traditionally observed that millions of Americans
never learned their parents’ native language (Stevens, 1985), because knowledge
of their heritage language rarely lasted past the third generation (Portes
& Hao, 1998). Therefore, it is common to see that children in this country,
who come from a wide diversity of backgrounds most typically become
English-dominant if not English monolingual by middle to late childhood (King
& Fogle, 2006; Stoessel, 2002). This can be appreciated as one of the
critical issues among the different generations of immigrant families caused by
the language shift. Interactions between the first and third generation are
often mediated by the second generation (Ishizawa, 2004; Portes & Rumbaut,
2001). This means that most of the time, grandparents need the parents’
intervention to communicate with their grandchildren because they do not share
a common language (Whitbeck, Hoyt, & Huck, 1993).
Previous studies suggested that language shift rates in the United States tend
to be higher between native-born generations than among the foreign-born and
first native-born generation (Stevens, 1985). Therefore, immigrant children and
children of immigrant parents are much more likely than children of native-born
parents to know and speak their parents’ native language (Lanza & Svendsen,
2007).
Additionally,
previous research showed that in current years, the three-generation process of
language shift among Asian immigrants in the United States takes a similar pace
as the European immigrants of the nineteenth century. They experienced a rapid
intergenerational language shift where by the third generation, the
individuals became English monolingual (Ishizawa, 2004). On the contrary,
it has been suggested that descendants of Hispanics are slower than others to
shift their language use to only English (Alba, Logan, Lutz, & Stults,
2002), because Hispanics and more over Latinos tend to live in
multigenerational households where their native language is always in place
(Oropesa & Landale, 1997). However, as mentioned before, language shift
always occurs, and cannot be avoided it (Hurtado & Vega, 2004).
Intergenerational
language shift can be perceived as a choice parents make, but the reality is
that it is not always their decision (Lane, 2010; Schüpbach, 2009). Innumerable factors influenced the disruption
or loss of intergenerational language transmission, such as social networks,
policies, demographic and cultural factors (Baker, 2006; Brown, 2008;
Matiki, 2009; Romaine, 2002). Continue with the following module to get
more details about the factors that promote language shift across
generations.
