Module 2: Activities

Activity 1: Societal Factors Contributing to Language Shift

              The table below lists some of the societal factors contributing to language shift. The purpose of showing these tables is to provide a list of some of the most mentioned external or societal factors encouraging language shift by different scholars. As mentioned before, language shift might not be a choice. If you believe that you have encountered the phenomenon of language shift, check those factors that might have contributed to it in your particular situation.

Societal level
Social factors promote language shift when	___ 1. Society’s attitudes toward the minority language are hostile, (Fishman, 1964: 2013). ___ 2. In the community, there are discrimination and racism against minority speakers (Baker, 2006). ___ 3. There is a nativism ideology (Baker, 2006). For example, in the United States the ideology of “to be American, one must speak English” (Filmore, 2000). ___ 4. There is the necessity to speak the dominant language to participate in the life of society (Filmore, 2000). ___ 5. Speaking a minority language is seen as a factor  that inhibits social and career achievement and mobility (Baker, 2006)
Economic factors promote language shift when	___ 1. Most employment opportunities require the use of the majority language (Baker, 2006). ___ 2. The economic statuses of those who speak the dominant language are higher (Stoessel, 2002). ___ 3. Higher retribution occupations require high proficiency in the dominant language (Schüpbach, 2009).
Demographic factors promote language shift when	___ 1. There are a small number of minority language speakers in a community (Baker, 2006; Fishman, 1964: 2013). ___ 2. When minority speakers have a long and stable residence in dominant language societies (Baker, 2006). ___ 3. The minority speakers’ homeland is remote or inaccessible (Baker, 2006). ___ 4. Minority speakers live in an urban residence (Fishman, 1964: 2013) ___ 5. There is an occupational shift, especially from rural to urban areas (Baker, 2006). ___ 6. There is a low rate of return to the minority speakers’ homeland or less intention or possibility to return  (Baker, 2006)
Institutional factors facilitate language shift when	___ 1. There is a lack of mother-tongue institutions (Baker, 2006). ___ 2. Potential and community leaders are dominant speakers (Baker, 2006). ___ 3. The inability to speak majority language in school is seen as a handicapping condition in many communities (Filmore, 2000). ___ 4. Lack of additive bilingual programs in schools (Hickey, 2010). ___ 5. There is an emphasis on education in majority language (Baker, 2006). ___ 6. There are a low number of educators and school leaders are proficient in both majority and minority languages (Lanza & Svendsen, 2007).
Environmental factors promote language shift when	___ 1. The level of the minority language’s prestige in society is low (Fishman, 1964: 2013). ___ 2. Informal social relationships, as friendships, and social network are developed in the majority language (Stoessel, 2002). ___ 3. Community business, hospitals, among other establishments use dominant language (Suslak, 2009). ___ 4. Most public services provided in the majority language (Filmore, 2000). ___ 5. There is a lack of use of minority language in social networks, such as in the neighborhood (Sofu, 2009). ___ 6. There is a lack of minority language use in the media, such as radio, television, and newspapers (Potowsky, 2013).
Political factors en-courage language shift when	___ 1. There are policies against minority language use. Examples: In California -Proposition 63 (in 1986), which forbids the use of languages other than English in public life. -Proposition 187 (in 1994), which denied undocumented immigrants health, welfare, and educational services provided by public funds. -Proposition 209 (in 1996), which ended affirmative action programs in jobs and education for minority speakers. -Proposition 227 (in 1998), which eliminated bilingual education as the preferred instructional program for limited English proficient students. (Filmore, 2000). ___ 2. The political affiliation, including nationality and citizenship is related to the ability to speak the majority language (Fishman, 1964: 2013).
Cultural factors facilitate language shift when	___ 1. Cultural and religious activities are provided in the majority language (Baker, 2006). ___ 2. Minority language speakers’ culture and religion are similar to that of the majority language speakers (Baker, 2006). ___ 3. There is an Assimilationist belief, for example, when immigrants to the U.S. must assimilate and accept the American culture (Filmore, 2000; Stevens, 1985). ___ 4. There is promoted the Americanization movement, which is supported by the idea that in order for immigrants become American, they must forget their native culture and traditions (de Jong, 2011). ___ 5. The cultural identity of minority speakers is defined by factors other than just speaking their native language (Baker, 2006).

Activity 2: Individual Factors Contributing Language Shift

                Moreover, the following table lists some of the individual factors contributing to language shift. The purpose of showing these tables is to provide a list of some of the most mentioned internal or individual factors encouraging language shift by different scholars. Please, identify those factors that might have promoted a language shift in your particular situation.

Individual Level
Language attitudes Promote language shift when the individual	___ 1. Has a high emphasis on individual achievement (Baker, 2006). ___ 2. Holds negative attitudes towards minority language, due to the low status, or prestige in his/her society (Nawanz et al., 2012). ___ 3. Has the fear that minority language will interfere with the ability to learn the majority language or get ahead in mainstream society (Filmore, 2000; Potowsky, 2013).
Cultural factors facilitate language shift when the individual	___ 1. Has assimilated the host culture (Filmore, 2000), for example the individual has accepted the idea of to be American, one must speak English. ___ 2. Rejects his/her cultural group membership and loyalty to it (Fishman, 1964: 2013).
Family factors promote language shift when	___ 1. There are diverse marriage patterns in the family, such as interracial marriages (Schüpbach, 2009). ___ 2. The pattern of language use within the family focus on the dominant language (Sofu, 2009). ___ 3. There is a lack of presence of minority language speakers in the family (Sofu, 2009). ___ 4. Parents’ minority language proficiency is low (Mouw & Yue, 1999). ___ 5. There is a lack of effort invested in language maintenance of minority language (Sofu, 2009). ___ 6. Lack of literacy material in the minority language at home (Mouw & Yue, 1999). ___ 7. The number of overseas visitors from the home country or number of visits to the home country are minimum (Potowsky, 2013).
Language proficiency is a factor that promotes language shift when	___ 1. The person has no or low proficiency in the minority language (Potowsky, 2013) ___ 2. The person is illiterate in the home language (Baker, 2006). ___ 3. The years used for minority language acquisition were only a few (Potowsky, 2013). ___ 4. There is prior knowledge of English (Schupbach, 2009).
Other factors to consider	___ 1. Peer pressure to speak majority language (Potowsky, 2013) ___ 2. Lack of opportunity to use minority language (Potowsky, 2013). ___ 3. Birthplace (Schüpbach, 2009) ___ 4. Age and gender (Schüpbach, 2009). ___ 5. Period of residence in the host country (Schüpbach, 2009). ___ 6. Reason for migration (Schüpbach, 2009). ___ 7. Religion (Fishman, 1964: 2013) ___ 8. Social status (Fishman, 1964: 2013) ___ 9. Duration and frequency of contact with minority language (Fishman, 1964: 2013) ___ 10. Occupation (Baker, 2006; Fishman, 1964: 2013). ___ 11. Level of education (Fishman, 1964: 2013).

Activity 3: Family as factor contributing to language shift

           Specifically, several studies have discussed that family is one of the most important factors in the shift or maintenance of a community language (Pauwels, 2005; Potowsky, 2013). This is because parents seem to be the individuals who have the earliest influence on the language that their children acquire (Potowsky, 2013). The language that parents choose to speak to their children may be a determining factor to lose or maintain their native language (Sofu, 2009).

            The following questionnaire provides a few questions on pattern of language use in family contexts. The purpose of this activity is to help visitors of the website to identify the common minority language use patters among themselves and/or their children.

1.      Which is the primary language for communication with parents and grandparents?

2.      Is the minority language used with siblings or peers?

3.      What is the language for communication with interlocutors who know the dominate language?

4.      Does the percentage of minority language use decrease with age?

5.      After entering into the school system, what did happen to the minority language use?

6.      Did the minority language use stay the same after adolescence?

7.      At home, what is the amount of minority language use and by whom is it used?

            According to the answers to these questions, one can identify the pattern of the minority language in the family, who uses the language, with whom, and the amount of minority language used.

Activity 4: The Graded Intergeneration Disruption Scale (GIDS)

                 After, identifying the pattern of the minority language in the family, it is important that visitors of this website identify which is the stage where their minority language is in the society. Therefore, this activity presents Fishman’s (1991) scale to measure the degree of shift in a community. This scale is called the Graded Intergeneration Disruption Scale (GIDS). The purpose of showing the GIDS is to allow visitors to observe the stages of the process language shift in the community. Additionally, they might identify the stage where their minority language is in their community.

                This scale has eight stages. Additionally, it uses the word “Xish” to refer to any particular language. Stage 8 represents situations in which a language is no longer spoken in a community, and Stage 1 is rather robust use of a language. According to Fishman (1991), only when Stage 6 is stable is there a chance of long-term survival of that language.

               To identify the stage where your minority language is in your particular community, please use the name of the minority language to replace the word “Xish”. Then, detect which of the statements is closest to the situation of your minority language in your society.

Fishman’s (1991) Graded Intergeneration Disruption Scale: