MODULE 1: Language Shift: Brief Introduction

Introduction Statement

            This module consists of a brief introduction of language shift and its definitions. Since there are two or more languages in contact (Sofu, 2009), language shift takes place and it is inevitable (Hurtado & Vega, 2004).  According to the literature, language shift is a phenomenon that happens over the course of several generations (Schmidt, 1990) and might be the consequence of unsuccessful inter-generational transmission of the heritage language and other cultural knowledge (Sulask, 2009). However, scholars have stated that even if a language shift has occurred across generations, individuals of the third or further generations might desire to recover their cultural and linguistic roots by reviving the language of their ethnic origins (Baker, 2006).

Historically, the United States has been a country where an uncountable number of immigrants arrive every day (Guardado, 2006). A notable phenomenon which has occurred among all the waves of immigrants that have come to this nation is the intergenerational language shift (Ishizawa, 2004) as a gauge for assimilation of the dominant culture (Hurtado & Vega, 2004). However, the linguistic and cultural heritages of those who are affected by the language shift seem to be dismissed. Additionally, some scholars have discussed that the United States is a widespread cemetery of foreign languages (Lieberson, Dalto,& Johnston, 1975; Portes & Hao, 1998). Language shift can be seen as the first step towards language death (Nawanz, Umer, Anjum, & Ramzan, 2012).

Definition of Language Shift

             What is the definition of language shift? Language shift has been defined as “the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialization within a community” (Mesthrie, Swann, Deumert, & Leap, 2001, p. 253).  Also, it has been referred to as “the change from habitual use of one’s minority language to that of a more dominant language under pressures of assimilation from the dominant group” (Fishman, 1966, as cited in Donghui, 2010, p. 43).  In other words, language shift takes place when speakers of minority language give up their mother tongue in favor of the dominant language of the society where they reside (Sofu, 2009).

           

            According to Fishman, language shift presents a structure of a three-generation process which suggests that the immigrant generation learns as much English as is possible. They keep their native language at home. Then the second generation learns and uses English at school and workplace and may speak native language at home. By the third generation, English shifts to become the home language and knowledge of the heritage language disappears (as cited in Portes & Hao, 1998). See the video clip for a visual image of the three-generation process of language shift.

 Language Shift in the United States   

             In the United States, it is traditionally observed that millions of Americans never learned their parents’ native language (Stevens, 1985), because knowledge of their heritage language rarely lasted past the third generation (Portes & Hao, 1998). Therefore, it is common to see that children in this country, who come from a wide diversity of backgrounds most typically become English-dominant if not English monolingual by middle to late childhood (King & Fogle, 2006; Stoessel, 2002). This can be appreciated as one of the critical issues among the different generations of immigrant families caused by the language shift. Interactions between the first and third generation are often mediated by the second generation (Ishizawa, 2004; Portes & Rumbaut, 2001). This means that most of the time, grandparents need the parents’ intervention to communicate with their grandchildren because they do not share a common language (Whitbeck, Hoyt, & Huck, 1993).

            Previous studies suggested that language shift rates in the United States tend to be higher between native-born generations than among the foreign-born and first native-born generation (Stevens, 1985). Therefore, immigrant children and children of immigrant parents are much more likely than children of native-born parents to know and speak their parents’ native language (Lanza & Svendsen, 2007).

         

            Additionally, previous research showed that in current years, the three-generation process of language shift among Asian immigrants in the United States takes a similar pace as the European immigrants of the nineteenth century. They experienced a rapid intergenerational language shift where by the third generation, the individuals became English monolingual (Ishizawa, 2004).  On the contrary, it has been suggested that descendants of Hispanics are slower than others to shift their language use to only English (Alba, Logan, Lutz, & Stults, 2002), because Hispanics and more over Latinos tend to live in multigenerational households where their native language is always in place (Oropesa & Landale, 1997). However, as mentioned before, language shift always occurs, and cannot be avoided it (Hurtado & Vega, 2004).

           

            Intergenerational language shift can be perceived as a choice parents make, but the reality is that it is not always their decision (Lane, 2010; Schüpbach, 2009).  Innumerable factors influenced the disruption or loss of intergenerational language transmission, such as social networks, policies, demographic and cultural factors (Baker, 2006; Brown, 2008;  Matiki, 2009; Romaine, 2002). Continue with the following module to get more details about the factors that promote language shift across generations.